Low-Temperature Synthesized Nb-Doped TiO₂ Electron Transport Layer Enabling High-Efficiency Perovskite Solar Cells by Band Alignment Tuning

An Nb-doped TiO₂ (Nb-TiO₂) film comprising a double structure stacked with a bottom compact layer and top mesoporous layers was synthesized by treating a Ti precursor-coated substrate using a one-step low-temperature steam-annealing (SA) method. The SA-based Nb-TiO₂ films possess high crystallinity and conductivity, and that allows better control over the conduction band (CB) of TiO₂ for the electron transport layer (ETL) of the perovskite solar cells by the Nb doping level. Optimization of power conversion efficiency (PCE) for the Nb-TiO₂-based ETL was combined with the CB level tuning of the mixed-halide perovskite by changing the Br/I ratio. This band offset management enabled to establish the most suitable energy levels between the ETL and the perovskites. This method was applied to reduce the band gap of perovskites to enhance the photocurrent density while maintaining a high open-circuit voltage. As a result, the optimal combination of 5 mol % Nb-TiO₂ ETL and 10 mol % Br in the mixed-halide perovskite exhibited high photovoltaic performance for low-temperature device fabrication, achieving a high-yield PCE of 21.3%.